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Isotopes of Indium

List, data and properties of all known isotopes of Indium.


Content

Indium isotopes

All atomic nuclei of the chemical element indium are summarized under indium isotopes; these all consist of an atomic nucleus with 49 protons and, in the uncharged state, 49 electrons. The difference between each indium isotope is based on the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

 

Naturally Occurring Indium Isotopes

In nature, the chemical element indium occurs in the form of an isotope mixture of the two primordial nuclides indium-113 and indium-115.

Atomic Mass maQuantityHalf-lifeSpin
Indium
Isotopic mixture
114,818 u100 %
Isotope 113In112,904062(6) u4,281(52) %stable9/2+
Isotope 115In114,903878773(12) u95,719(52) %4.41(25) × 1014 a9/2+

 

In addition to the natural isotopes of indium, more than 35 other radionuclides and a large number of nuclear isomers are known. Some of the indium radioisotopes have applications in nuclear medicine: indium-111, indium-113m.

 

Isotope Table: Indium

The two following tables list the most important data and properties of the Indium isotopes. Further information on the individual Indium isotopes is listed on separate pages and can be accessed via the link in column 1.

 

Atomic Properties

Isotope
Nuclide
ENAtomic Mass
[Nuclear Mass]
{Mass Excess}
Spin I
(h/2π)
Parent
123456
Indium-969649In4795.95932(54) u
[95.9324411 u]
{-37.89318 MeV}
Indium-979749In4896.94913(43) u
[96.9222511 u]
{-47.3851 MeV}
(9/2+)
Indium-989849In4997.94214(32) u
[97.9152611 u]
{-53.89624 MeV}
Indium-999949In5098.93411(32) u
[98.9072311 u]
{-61.37614 MeV}
Indium-10010049In5199.93096(20) u
[99.9040811 u]
{-64.31035 MeV}
(6+)100Sn
Indium-10110149In52100.92634(21) u
[100.8994611 u]
{-68.61385 MeV}
(9/2+)
Indium-10210249In53101.924106(5) u
[101.8972271 u]
{-70.69481 MeV}
(6+)
Indium-10310349In54102.919879(10) u
[102.8930001 u]
{-74.63223 MeV}
(9/2)+
Indium-103m103m49In54102.919879(10) u
[102.8930001 u]
{-74.63223 MeV}
(1/2-)
Indium-10410449In55103.918215(6) u
[103.8913361 u]
{-76.18224 MeV}
(6+)104Sn
Indium-104m104m49In55103.918215(6) u
[103.8913361 u]
{-76.18224 MeV}
(3+)
Indium-10510549In56104.914502(11) u
[104.8876231 u]
{-79.64087 MeV}
9/2+105Sn
Indium-105m105m49In56104.914502(11) u
[104.8876231 u]
{-79.64087 MeV}
(1/2-)
Indium-10610649In57105.913464(13) u
[105.8865851 u]
{-80.60776 MeV}
7+106Sn
Indium-106m106m49In57105.913464(13) u
[105.8865851 u]
{-80.60776 MeV}
(2)+
Indium-10710749In58106.910290(12) u
[106.8834111 u]
{-83.56433 MeV}
9/2+107Sn
Indium-107m107m49In58106.910290(12) u
[106.8834111 u]
{-83.56433 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-10810849In59107.909694(9) u
[107.8828151 u]
{-84.1195 MeV}
7+108Sn
Indium-108m108m49In59107.909694(9) u
[107.8828151 u]
{-84.1195 MeV}
2+
Indium-10910949In60108.907150(4) u
[108.8802711 u]
{-86.48922 MeV}
9/2+109Sn
Indium-109m1109m149In60108.907150(4) u
[108.8802711 u]
{-86.48922 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-109m2109m249In60108.907150(4) u
[108.8802711 u]
{-86.48922 MeV}
19/2+
Indium-11011049In61109.907171(12) u
[109.8802921 u]
{-86.46966 MeV}
7+110Sn
Indium-110m110m49In61109.907171(12) u
[109.8802921 u]
{-86.46966 MeV}
2+
Indium-11111149In62110.905107(4) u
[110.8782281 u]
{-88.39226 MeV}
9/2+111Sn
Indium-111m111m49In62110.905107(4) u
[110.8782281 u]
{-88.39226 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-11211249In63111.905539(5) u
[111.8786601 u]
{-87.98985 MeV}
1+
Indium-112m112m49In63111.905539(5) u
[111.8786601 u]
{-87.98985 MeV}
4+
Indium-112m2112m249In63111.905539(5) u
[111.8786601 u]
{-87.98985 MeV}
(7)+
Indium-112m3112m349In63111.905539(5) u
[111.8786601 u]
{-87.98985 MeV}
(8)-
Indium-11311349In64112.904062(6) u
[112.8771831 u]
{-89.36567 MeV}
9/2+113Cd
113Sn
Indium-113m113m49In64112.904062(6) u
[112.8771831 u]
{-89.36567 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-11411449In65113.9049164(3) u
[113.8780375 u]
{-88.5698 MeV}
1+
Indium-114m1114m149In65113.9049164(3) u
[113.8780375 u]
{-88.5698 MeV}
5+
Indium-114m2114m249In65113.9049164(3) u
[113.8780375 u]
{-88.5698 MeV}
8-
Indium-11511549In66114.903878773(12) u
[114.8769999 u]
{-89.53635 MeV}
9/2+115Cd
Indium-115m115m49In66114.903878773(12) u
[114.8769999 u]
{-89.53635 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-11611649In67115.90525999(24) u
[115.8783811 u]
{-88.24975 MeV}
1+
Indium-116m1116m149In67115.90525999(24) u
[115.8783811 u]
{-88.24975 MeV}
5+
Indium-116m2116m249In67115.90525999(24) u
[115.8783811 u]
{-88.24975 MeV}
8-
Indium-11711749In68116.904516(5) u
[116.8776371 u]
{-88.94277 MeV}
9/2+117Cd
Indium-117m117m49In68116.904516(5) u
[116.8776371 u]
{-88.94277 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-11811849In69117.906357(8) u
[117.8794781 u]
{-87.22789 MeV}
1+118Cd
Indium-118m1118m149In69117.906357(8) u
[117.8794781 u]
{-87.22789 MeV}
5+
Indium-118m2118m249In69117.906357(8) u
[117.8794781 u]
{-87.22789 MeV}
8-
Indium-11911949In70118.905851(8) u
[118.8789721 u]
{-87.69923 MeV}
9/2+119Cd
Indium-119m119m49In70118.905851(8) u
[118.8789721 u]
{-87.69923 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-119m2119m249In70118.905851(8) u
[118.8789721 u]
{-87.69923 MeV}
(3/2)+
Indium-119m3119m349In70118.905851(8) u
[118.8789721 u]
{-87.69923 MeV}
(25/2+)
Indium-12012049In71119.90797(4) u
[119.8810911 u]
{-85.72539 MeV}
1+120Cd
Indium-120m1120m149In71119.90797(4) u
[119.8810911 u]
{-85.72539 MeV}
(8-)
Indium-120m2120m249In71119.90797(4) u
[119.8810911 u]
{-85.72539 MeV}
(5)+
Indium-12112149In72120.907851(29) u
[120.8809721 u]
{-85.83624 MeV}
9/2+121Cd
Indium-121m121m49In72120.907851(29) u
[120.8809721 u]
{-85.83624 MeV}
1/2-
Indium-12212249In73121.91028(5) u
[121.8834011 u]
{-83.57364 MeV}
1+122Cd
Indium-122m1122m149In73121.91028(5) u
[121.8834011 u]
{-83.57364 MeV}
5+
Indium-122m2122m249In73121.91028(5) u
[121.8834011 u]
{-83.57364 MeV}
(8-)
Indium-12312349In74122.910434(21) u
[122.8835551 u]
{-83.43019 MeV}
(9/2)+123Cd
Indium-123m123m49In74122.910434(21) u
[122.8835551 u]
{-83.43019 MeV}
(1/2)-
Indium-12412449In75123.91318(3) u
[123.8863011 u]
{-80.87231 MeV}
(1)+124Cd
Indium-124m124m49In75123.91318(3) u
[123.8863011 u]
{-80.87231 MeV}
(8-)
Indium-12512549In76124.913605(29) u
[124.8867261 u]
{-80.47642 MeV}
9/2+125Cd
Indium-125m125m49In76124.913605(29) u
[124.8867261 u]
{-80.47642 MeV}
1/2(-)
Indium-125m2125m249In76124.913605(29) u
[124.8867261 u]
{-80.47642 MeV}
(19/2+)
Indium-125m3125m349In76124.913605(29) u
[124.8867261 u]
{-80.47642 MeV}
(23/2-)
Indium-12612649In77125.916507(29) u
[125.8896281 u]
{-77.77323 MeV}
3(+)126Cd
Indium-126m126m49In77125.916507(29) u
[125.8896281 u]
{-77.77323 MeV}
(8-)
Indium-12712749In78126.917449(23) u
[126.8905701 u]
{-76.89576 MeV}
(9/2+)127Cd
Indium-127m1127m149In78126.917449(23) u
[126.8905701 u]
{-76.89576 MeV}
(1/2-)
Indium-127m2127m249In78126.917449(23) u
[126.8905701 u]
{-76.89576 MeV}
(21/2-)
Indium-12812849In79127.92040(16) u
[127.8935211 u]
{-74.14692 MeV}
(3)+128Cd
Indium-128m128m49In79127.92040(16) u
[127.8935211 u]
{-74.14692 MeV}
(8-)
Indium-12912949In80128.9218055(29) u
[128.8949266 u]
{-72.83771 MeV}
(9/2+)129Cd
Indium-129m129m49In80128.9218055(29) u
[128.8949266 u]
{-72.83771 MeV}
(1/2-)
Indium-129m2129m249In80128.9218055(29) u
[128.8949266 u]
{-72.83771 MeV}
(23/2-)
Indium-129m3129m349In80128.9218055(29) u
[128.8949266 u]
{-72.83771 MeV}
(17/2-)
Indium-129m4129m449In80128.9218055(29) u
[128.8949266 u]
{-72.83771 MeV}
(29/2+)
Indium-13013049In81129.92498(4) u
[129.8981011 u]
{-69.88068 MeV}
1(-)130Cd
131Cd
Indium-130m1130m149In81129.92498(4) u
[129.8981011 u]
{-69.88068 MeV}
(10-)
Indium-130m3130m349In81129.924971876(41915) u
[129.898093 u]
{-69.88825 MeV}
(5+)
Indium-13113149In82130.9269721(29) u
[130.9000932 u]
{-68.02505 MeV}
(9/2+)131Cd
132Cd
Indium-131m1131m149In82130.9269721(29) u
[130.9000932 u]
{-68.02505 MeV}
(1/2-)
Indium-131m2131m249In82130.9269721(29) u
[130.9000932 u]
{-68.02505 MeV}
(21/2+)
Indium-13213249In83131.93300(6) u
[131.9061211 u]
{-62.4101 MeV}
(7-)132Cd
Indium-13313349In84132.938070(220) u
[132.9111911 u]
{-57.68742 MeV}
(9/2+)
Indium-133m133m49In84132.938070(220) u
[132.9111911 u]
{-57.68742 MeV}
(1/2-)
Indium-13413449In85133.94454(32) u
[133.9176611 u]
{-51.66066 MeV}
(4-7)-
Indium-13513549In86134.95005(43) u
[134.9231711 u]
{-46.52813 MeV}
Indium-13613649In87135.95651(43) u
[135.9296311 u]
{-40.51067 MeV}
Indium-13713749In88136.96238(54) u
[136.9355011 u]
{-35.0428 MeV}

 

Radioactive Decay Properties

IsotopeRadioactive DecayExtern
Half-lifeDecay ModeProbabilityEnergy
789101112
In-96p → 95Cd
EC, p → 95Ag
EC/β+96Cd
?
?


In-9736(6) msβ+97Cd
β+, p → 96Ag
98.3 %
1.7 %
13.344(581) MeV
AL
In-9832 msEC/β+98Cd?13.74(30) MeVAL
In-993.1(2) sEC/β+99Cd?8.56(30) MeVAL
In-1005.8(2) sEC/β+100Cd
ε, p → 99Ag
98.3 %
1.7(4) %
9.88(18) MeV
AL
In-10115.1(3) sEC/β+101Cd
ε, p → 100Ag
ca. 100 %
?
7.22(20) MeV
AL
In-10223.3(1) sEC/β+102Cd
β+, p → 101Ag
ca. 100 %
0.0093 %
8.965(5) MeV
AL
In-10365(7) sEC/β+103Cd100 %6.019(10) MeVAL
In-103m34(2) sEC/β+103Cd
Iso → 103In
67 %
33 %

In-1041.80(3) minEC/β+104Cd100 %7.786(6) MeVAL
In-104m15.7(5) sEC/β+104Cd
Iso → 104In
20 %
80 %

In-1055.07(7) minEC/β+105Cd100 %4.693(10) MeVAL
In-105m48(6) sIso → 105In100 %
In-1066.2(1) minEC/β+106Cd100 %6.524(12) MeVAL
In-106m5.2(1) minEC/β+106Cd100 %
In-10732.4(3) minEC/β+107Cd100 %3.426(11) MeVAL
In-107m50.4(6) sIso → 107In100 %
In-10858.0(12) minEC/β+108Cd100 %5.133(9) MeVAL
In-108m39.6(7) minEC/β+108Cd100 %
In-1094.159(10) hEC/β+109Cd100 %2.015(4) MeVAL
In-109m11.34(7) minIso → 109In100 %
In-109m2210.0(9) msIso → 109In100 %
In-1104.92(8) hEC/β+110Cd100 %3.878(11) MeVAL
In-110m69.1(5) minEC/β+110Cd100 %
In-1112.8047(4) dEC → 111Cd100 %0.860(3) MeVAL
In-111m7.7(2) minIso → 111In100 %
In-11214.88(15) minEC/β+112Cd
β-112Sn
62(4) %
38(4) %
2.585(4) MeV
0.665(4) MeV
AL
In-112m20.67(8) minIso → 112In100 %
In-112m20.69(5) μsIso → 112In100 %
In-112m32.81(3) μsIso → 112In100 %
In-113stableAL
In-113m99.476(23) minIso → 113In100 %
In-11471.9(1) sEC/β+114Cd
β-114Sn
0.50(15) %
99.50(15) %
1.4451(4) MeV
1.9899(3) MeV
AL
In-114m149.51(1) dEC/β+114Cd
Iso → 114In
3.25(24) %
96.75(24) %

In-114m243.1(5) msIso → 114In100 %
In-1154.41(25) × 1014 aβ-115Sn100 %0.497489(10) MeVAL
In-115m4.486(4) hβ-115Sn
Iso → 115In
5.0(7) %
95.0(7) %

In-11614.10(3) sβ-116Sn
EC → 116Cd
99.977(6) %
0.023(6) %
3.27622(24) MeV
0.46273(27) MeV
AL
In-116m154.29(17) minβ-116Sn100 %
In-116m22.18(4) sIso → 116In100 %
In-11743.2(3) minβ-117Sn100 %1.1.455(5) MeVAL
In-117m116.2(3) minβ-117Sn
Iso → 117In
52.9(15) %
47.1(15) %

In-1185.0(5) sβ-118Sn100 %4.425(8) MeVAL
In-118m14.45(5) minβ-118Sn100 %
In-118m28.5(3) sβ-118Sn
Iso → 118In
1.4(4) %
98.6(3) %

In-1192.4(1) minβ-119Sn100 %2.366(7) MeVAL
In-119m18.0(3) minβ-119Sn
Iso → 119In
95.6 %
4.4 %

In-119m2130(15) ns
In-119m3240(25) ns
In-1203.08(8) sβ-120Sn100 %5.370(40) MeVAL
In-120m147.3(5) sβ-120Sn100 %
In-120m246.2(8) sβ-120Sn100 %
In-12123.1(6) sβ-121Sn100 %3.361(27) MeVAL
In-121m3.88(10) minβ-121Sn
Iso → 121In
98.8(2) %
1.2(2) %

In-1221.5(3) sβ-122Sn100 %6.37(5) MeVAL
In-122m110.3(6) sβ-122Sn100 %
In-122m210.8(4) sβ-122Sn100 %
In-1236.17(5) sβ-123Sn100 %4.386(20) MeVAL
In-123m47.4(4) sβ-123Sn100 %
In-1243.12(9) sβ-124Sn100 %7.36(3) MeVAL
In-124m3.7(2) sβ-124Sn100 %
In-1252.36(4) sβ-125Sn100 %5.420(27) MeVAL
In-125m12.2(2) sβ-125Sn100 %
In-125m29.4(6) μs
In-125m35.0(15) msIso → 125In100 %
In-1261.53(1) sβ-126Sn100 %8.242(27) MeVAL
In-126m1.64(5) sβ-126Sn100 %
In-1271.09(1) sβ-127Sn
β-, n → 126Sn
≥ 99.97 %
≤ 0.03 %
6.575(19) MeV
1.048(24) MeV
AL
In-127m13.67(4) sβ-127Sn
β-, n → 126Sn
99.31 %
0.69(4) %

In-127m21.04(10) sβ-127Sn100 %
In-1280.84(6) sβ-128Sn
β-, n → 127Sn
> 99.954 %
< 0.046 %
9.22(15) MeV
1.125(15) MeV
AL
In-128m0.72(10) sβ-128Sn
β-, n → 127Sn
> 99.954 %
< 0.046 %

AL
In-129611(5) msβ-129Sn
β-, n → 128Sn
99.75(5) %7
0.23(7) %
7.753(17) MeV
2.453(18) MeV
AL
In-129m1.23(3) sβ-129Sn
β-, n → 128Sn
Iso → 129In
96.37 %
3.6(4) %
< 0.3 %


In-129m20.67(10) sβ-129Sn
Iso → 129In
ca. 100 %
?

In-129m38.7(7) μsIso → 129In100 %
In-129m4110(15) msIso → 129In
β-129Sn
ca. 100 %
?

In-1300.29(2) sβ-130Sn
β-, n → 129Sn
99.07 %
0.93(13) %
10.25(4) MeV
2.64(4) MeV
AL
In-130m10.54(1) sβ-130Sn
β-, n → 129Sn
98.35 %
1.65 %

In-130m30.54(1) sβ-130Sn
β-, n → 129Sn
98.35 %
1.65 %

AL
In-1310.28(3) sβ-131Sn
β-, n → 130Sn
98.0(3) %
2.0(3) %
9.24(5) MeV
4.036(3) MeV
AL
In-131m10.35(5) sβ-131Sn
β-, n → 130Sn
Iso → 131In
≥ 99.982 %
≤ 2.0(3) %
≤ 0.018 %


In-131m20.32(6) sβ-131Sn
β-, n → 130Sn
Iso → 131In
> 99 %
ca. 0.03 %
< 1 %


In-132200(2) msβ-132Sn
β-, n → 131Sn
93.7(9) %
6.3(9) %
14.13(6) MeV
6.78(6) MeV
AL
In-133165(3) msβ-133Sn
β-, n → 132Sn
15(10) %
85(10) %
13.180(200) MeV
10.785(200) MeV
AL
In-133m180(15) msβ- ?
β-, n ?
Iso ?




In-134140(4) msβ-134Sb
β-, n → 133Sn
25 %
65 %

AL
In-135101(5) msβ-135Sn
β-, n → 134Sn
β-, 2n → 133Sn
< 100 %
> 0 %
?
14.1(4) MeV
11.83(40) MeV
AL
In-13685 msβ-136Sn
β-, n → 135Sn
β-, 2n → 134Sn
100 %
?
?
15.39(50) MeV
12.05(40) MeV
In-13765 msβ-137Sn
β-, n → 136Sn
β-, 2n → 135Sn
100 %
?
?
14.75(64) MeV
12.79(58) MeV

 

Notes (related to the columns):

1 - name of the nuclide, isotope.
2 - E: isotope symbol with mass number (superscript; number of nucleons) and Atomic number (subscript; number of protons).
3 - N: number of neutrons.
4 - relative atomic mass of the Indium isotope (isotopic mass including electrons) and the mass of the atomic nucleus in square brackets (nuclear mass, nuclide mass without electrons), each related to 12C = 12.00000 [2]. In addition, the mass excess is given in MeV.
5 - nuclear spin I, unit: h/2π.
6 - source nuclides: Possible, assumed or actual source nuclides (mother nuclides, parent nuclides). If applicable, the corresponding decay modes can be found in the data for the respective starting nuclide.

7 - isotope notation in short form.
8 - decay: half-live of the Indium isotope (a = years; ; d = days; h = hours; min = minutes; s = seconds).
9 - decay mode: type of decay into the respective daughter nuclides with n = neutron emission; p = proton emission; α = alpha decay; β- = beta minus decay with electron emission; EC = electron capture; β+ = positron emission; ε = β+ and/or EC; Iso = isomeric transition; CD = cluster decay; SF = spontaneous decay.
10 - decay probability in percent (%).
11 - decay energy; Particle energy related to decay type.
12 - other information and notes: AL = Adopted Levels (link to external data [1]).

Miscellaneous:

()- Numbers in brackets: uncertainty to represent the spread of the reported value.
~ - Theoretical values or systematic trends.
  - unlisted-: Nuclides that have already been mentioned in the literature but for some reason can no longer be found in the current nuclide tables because their discovery e.g. has not confirmed.

 

NMR active Indium nuclides

Nuclide
quantity 1)
spin
Nuclear
magnetic
moment
μ/μN
Gyromagnetic ratio
{Quadrupole moment}
Resonant
frequency
v0 bei 1 T
Relative
sensitivity
H0 = const.
v0 = const. 3)
113In
4,281(52) %
9/2+
+ 5,5208(4)5,8845
{+ 0,761(5)}
9,36550,35121
7,2589
115In
95,719(52) %
9/2+
+5,5326(4)5,8971
{+ 0,772(5)}
9,38560,35348
7,2745

1) Quantity Percentage of natural occurrence.

2) Gyromagnetic ratio: 107 rad T-1 s-1
    Quadrupole moment: Q [barn] = [100 fm2]

3) Related to 1H = 1,000.

 

Radiation Protection

According to the Radiation Protection Ordinance (StrlSchV 2018, Germany), the following values (columns 1 to 7) apply to the handling of Indium radionuclides:

NuclideLimit ValueHASS limitSCDaughter NuclidesHalf-life
In-109106 Bq10 Bq/g4.2 h
In-110m105 Bq10 Bg/g69.1 min
In-111+106 Bq10 Bq/g0,2 TBq10 Bq cm-22.8 d
In-112106 Bq100 Bq/g14.7 min
In-113m106 Bq100 Bq/g0,3 TBq10 Bq cm-299.5 min
In-114105 Bq1000 Bq/g0,8 TBq1.2 min
In-114m+106 Bq10 Bq/g0,8 TBq10 Bq cm-2In-11450.0 d
In-115106 Bq10 Bq/g4.4 × 1014 a
In-115m106 Bq100 Bq/g0,4 TBq10 Bq cm-24.5 h
In-116m105 Bq10 Bq/g54.6 min
In-117106 Bq10 Bq/g43.2 min
In-117m+106 Bq100 Bq/g1.9 h
In-119m+105 Bq100 Bq/g18.0 min

(HASS = High-Activity Sealed Radioactive Sources; SC = surface contamination)

 

Literature Sources and References

Properties of the Indium nucleides

[1] - NuDat: National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory, based on ENSDF and the Nuclear Wallet Cards.

[2] - G. Audi et. al.: The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties. Nuclear Physics, (2003), DOI 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.

[3] - Live Chart of Nuclides. Nuclear structure and decay data.

Indium: NMR properties - 113In-NMR, 115In-NMR

[4] - N. J. Stone: Table of nuclear magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments. Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, (2005), DOI 10.1016/j.adt.2005.04.001.

[5] - Pekka Pyykkö: Year-2008 nuclear quadrupole moments. Molecular Physics, (2008), DOI 10.1080/00268970802018367.

[6] - Pekka Pyykkö: Year-2017 nuclear quadrupole moments. Molecular Physics, (2018), DOI 10.1080/00268976.2018.1426131.

[7] - N. J. Stone: Table of recommended nuclear magnetic dipole moments. IAEA, (2019).

More sources:

[8] - Isotopic abundances, atomic weights and isotopic masses: see respective keyword.

[9] - S. Amos, J. L.Gross, M. Thoennessen:
Discovery of the calcium, indium, tin, and platinum isotopes.
In: Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, (2011), DOI 10.1016/j.adt.2011.03.001.

 


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